I chanced upon this old paper I wrote in 1999 for my Japanese Culture class in the Ateneo de Manila. I am sharing it here in my blog as I wonder how much has changed the last decade for the working women in Japan. A whole lot, I hope.
THE ROAD LESS TRAVELLED
(A Paper on Women @ Work)
Traditionally, the primary duty of a woman is to be a good wife and mother. A woman is not expected to provide the family’s bread and butter; she is not obliged to support her family financially. Instead, a woman is traditionally expected to be a housewife, a full-time mother. Her career is supposed to be her family. Such is the stereotype of a Japanese woman. Stereotypes are the lowest form of archetypes as Carl Jung discusses in his discourse on Principal Archetypes (Richter 1989).
However, as Japan began to industrialize, the government as well as capitalists saw that women provide a cheap, flexible source of labor. From then on, the conflict between wanting to utilize women as a workforce and maintaining the status quo was on.
To this date, the working women of Japan are still battling for a change in the traditional role of women. Though now a larger number of women continue working after marriage and childbirth, the status quo remains unchanged. Women are still considered to be a temporary part of the labor force. It is assumed that most women will give up their work after getting married thus society sees no need to elevate the status of working women to be at par with men.
The Equal Employment Opportunity Law (EEOL) enacted in 1986 failed to provide the very much-needed change in status for women. Ideally, the EEOL requires employers to treat both sexes equally whether in hiring, placement or promotion. However, women argue that discrimination is still rampant in the workplace. The biggest influence of the EEOL is not the abolition of inequality but the classification of job positions into two, the tenured and the untenured. Tenured positions are those deemed traditionally suited for men. It means a permanent job, which does not involve job transfers that will require a change of residence. It refers to positions with potential for growth and advancement. Untenured positions, on the other hand, are the type of employment women generally ends up in. It refers to positions wherein there is very little potential for advancement in the workplace. The classification of job categories into tenured and untenured are adopted by large corporations mostly.
O.L.s or office ladies are part of the untenured. Their monthly wages are not enough to be able to rent an apartment in Tokyo and to live alone. It is interesting to know that while O.L.s exist, there are no O.G.s or office guys.
Landing on a tenured job does not mean it’s smooth sailing from then on for a woman. There are still cases wherein women in tenured positions are passed up for promotion or indirectly discriminated somehow. Landing on a tenured post is not equal to being on equal footing with men.
The percentage of Japanese women in the work force by age follows an “M” curve. It is the norm in Japan for women to work after a high school or college education, the reason for the first peak in the letter “M” and then to become housewives after marriage, which explains the dip downward. The second peak comes after child rearing obligations are over and that is when women, usually middle-aged by then, return to work. This trend doesn’t help elevate the status of women. Instead, it serves as an affirmation that women are a temporary part of the work force which is so often used by employers as a reason for not treating women the same way as men.
The low potential for advancement in the workplace is evident in the percentage of women in managerial positions. The figure for Japan as of 1997 was a mere 8.2% compared to 42.7% in the United States and 33% in Germany. The male/female wage differential further serves as proof of the low status accorded to women in the workplace. With the male wage given a value of 100, that of a female worker in Japan is only 63.5 whereas that of a woman in the U.S. is given a value of 75.5 and in France a high 80.8.
Moreover, women as workers are not evaluated individually but as a group. A negative evaluation of a woman with a poor working record is generalized for all women. Each individual woman’s working record reflects on all women as well. Thus women are not only pressured to perform as well as their male peers but they have to be careful not to do anything that will have a negative effect on the way employers perceive women in general. A single mistake of one woman can prove to be detrimental to countless other individuals of the same sex. This reality occurring in the workplace exemplifies the gender discrimination suffered by women.
Women are not given one of the most important things that bring success to men: the element of time. Men have the privilege of taking their time before maturing into the best they can be, before their talents fully come into view. Women, on the other hand, cannot afford to take their time. Failure to perform well early in their career is tantamount to a negative evaluation and even to losing their job. Thus the saying “genius is slow to mature” is applicable in Japan but only to men.
When questioned why not enough women are hired or placed in key positions, most companies reply that it is because of the “female protective provision” in the Labor Standards Law. Such provision restricts the hours of overtime to 150 hours per year for women. Companies say that it is hard to put women in high positions because of this legal restriction in their working hours. The phrase female protective provision is capped with quotation marks because of the irony it breeds. A law that seeks to protect females is also at the same time the source of discrimination in the workplace.
Despite all these factors against working women, there are also certain triumphs for womanhood in Japan. To be discussed in this paper are the case of Kouno Eiko, the so-called “red-pen teachers” and the “female friendly” company, NEC.
Kouno Eiko is not the traditional Japanese female. Kouno is the first woman to be named as president of a company with over 3,000 employees. That day in February 1997 when she was named Recruit president, the media had a sizzling story to feast upon. For Kouno and Recruit however, it was no big deal. Kouno’s appointment as president was just routine promotion from vice president to president.
Back in 1970, Kouno decided to venture into a then exclusively male domain: sales. She wanted to build her work record in the same field as men, to be accorded adequate remuneration and ultimately, to be considered equal to her male peers. Even after giving birth, the thought of becoming a plain housewife was the last thing on her mind. According to Kouno, she lacked the capacity necessary for becoming a full-time mother. The rest is history and we know that Kouno climbed her way up the ladder of success. It is indeed a victory for womanhood and an inspiration to aspiring women workers as well.
The term “red-pen teachers” was coined to describe the women working for Benesse Corporation, a firm involved in the field of correspondence education. These women are mothers who wish to remain home. As of 1998, there were around 20,000 “red-pen” teachers who mark student papers as a job while playing the role of a full-time mother at the same time. The annual salary of “red-pen” teachers is low compared to regular employees working full-time. However, money is not the reason why women stay with the program. The women are after job satisfaction. The job as a “red-pen” teacher removes the feeling of alienation from society that housewives tend to feel after being cooped up at home for a long time. Instead of alienation, the women feel useful and in this sense they find fulfillment. As “red-pen” teachers, the women are able to supplement the income of their husbands and at the same time, not worry about neglecting their household duties.
NEC is a typical large Japanese company that has 41,000 employees as of 1998. Around 8,700 employees are women and 550 hold managerial posts. NEC is a company that is proud of its “female friendly” ways. Whereas childcare and family care leave became effective in Japan only in 1992, NEC began implementing this a year earlier. The company also adopted a reduced working hours system wherein women may take as much as two hours off their regular working hours per day until their children reached the age of three. NEC also has an on-line forum wherein women hold discussions and exchange of information on childcare among other things. Women on leave may also check their work status through the system. The company claims that their on-line system facilitates a smooth return to work for the women.
NEC says that they no longer differentiate between men and women when it comes to performance rating. Such a statement is highly ideal and if this is true indeed, it is a big leap forward. NEC is not affected by the legal restrictions imposed on women. The women in NEC are doing very well. Each year NEC has 200 leave takers and some of them even pass the examinations required for promotion while on leave.
Given the status quo and the few exceptions to the rule, it can be said that the future for working women is not all that bleak. There are several uplifting factors with regard to the status of women and another one of those is the amendments made in the EEOL which is set to take effect this 1999. The most significant change is the removal of the “female protective provision” under the Labor Standards Law. The maximum hours of overtime are no longer applicable. Such change should help set the scenario for women to be judged on equal footing with men. Companies can no longer make use of the argument that they can’t delegate women to high posts because of the legal restrictions. Another relevant part of the amendment is the outright banning of sexual discrimination. This is a very much welcome change from the ambivalent EEOL of 1986, which merely states that employers should “endeavor” to treat both sexes equally. The amendments also address the problems arising from sexual harassment in the workplace as well as enable the government to take positive action against de facto discrimination in employment. The amendment also strengthened the “protection of motherhood.” That last clause, “protection of motherhood” was not clearly defined in the magazine article and one could only hope that it does not contain provisions contradictory to the “liberating” amendments.
According to Yoshimiya Sogo, division director of the Center for Shorter Working Hours in the Department of Working Conditions at the Japanese Trade Union Confederation, the amendments to the EEOL are 70% adequate and 30% inadequate. He said that the amendments failed to consider the male-oriented style of work wherein men are free from household responsibilities but instead, was premised on a gender-based division of labor roles. Yoshimiya argues that there can be no real equality until that area is reconsidered.
More and more nowadays, the number of women embarking on blue-collar jobs is increasing. Japan’s “3-K” occupations (kitsui, kitanai and kiken) which mean disagreeable, dirty and dangerous in English now have women workers. Women are now working as construction workers, crane operators, welders, electrical workers, car mechanics and truck, taxi and bus drivers. Some women find blue-collar jobs more interesting than serving coffee or tea as an O.L. Others find such blue-collar jobs more satisfying as well as more rewarding monetarily and with regard to building occupational qualifications. The feedback on female blue-collar workers is also very well with companies saying they plan to hire more women. One should take note that whereas white-collar jobs are elusive to women, blue collar ones are tapping the abilities of women and reaping benefits from the immense wealth of skills possessed by women.
Undeniably, Japan’s graying society needs its women to play more active roles. Employers are aware that the issue of employing women has to be addressed. The fact that working women have to juggle work with managing the household pushed for certain changes in the system. Some companies have setup childcare facilities in the office and some have established connections with local nursery schools. Such are small steps but nonetheless a pathway toward achieving a more female friendly working environment.
The journey toward equality is far from over. Women have to make a number of decisions for themselves. One is whether or not to keep working after marriage. A woman who decides to pursue a career should very well know the consequences that come with her decision. It means having to juggle her work with her responsibilities to her family. It is tantamount to having to prove herself in the workplace especially if she wishes to go up the ranks in a tenured position. Pursuing a career means getting evaluated in such a way that will shape the perception of society on working women in general. It is equivalent to working twice as hard as the men in the same job position.
The women of Japan need to realize that they have to work together and be responsible for their actions. Quitting one’s job suddenly to get married paints a negative picture of women for the company. The decision to pursue a career should be left up for the woman to decide. In case she chooses being a housewife, she should do so in a planned manner that will not adversely affect the reputation of women in the firm she’s working for. Men don’t suddenly quit their job to get married. Neither should women. Women should plan their moves carefully and not just think of themselves.
A woman who decides to pursue a career after having a family should be given the chance to do so. Gender discrimination, sexual harassment and the like should not be on her way. This brings about another issue. It is not only the women who have to make decisions. The men also have to ascertain some things to themselves and to society. Are the Japanese men ready to back their wives in their decision to pursue a career? Are the men willing to help with the housekeeping chores and with child rearing? The women cannot do it alone. The support of their husbands can make a difference in the careers of the women.
Also, is the government ready to support the women all the way? Is the Japanese government serious in implementing the changes in the EEOL? One can just hope so.
The women are not the only ones involved in the discourse about working women. As written by Louis Althusser in his Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, the whole of society is involved in every issue (Hazard 1986). There is never an issue wherein only one person is involved and affected. Ideologies such as of women having a dual nature as worker and housekeeper is a false consciousness that can be dissolved at any time one chooses to do so. Ideologies are formed by people who themselves are later subjected to it. Ideologies need not run the lives of the Japanese. One can fervently wish that the time would come when Japanese society can dissolve its ideologies about women having dual natures. Instead, the prevailing ideology should have both the husband and wife concerned with the household and child rearing.
The childcare and family care leave became effective in Japan only in 1992. Indeed, it came quite late but the important thing is that it came. For a country like Japan, one cannot expect a sudden reversal of beliefs. A sharp turn to the opposite direction should not be counted on. Small, steady steps toward change are enough. The amendments in the EEOL are a step in itself. The next step is to ensure the implementation of such amendments.
The case of Kouno Eiko should serve as an inspiration for working women aspiring for higher positions. Hopefully, it will also encourage companies to hire more women and not to hesitate in elevating qualified women to key positions.
The ladder of success is the road less traveled by working women in Japan. The climb is slow and full of obstacles but it has been shown that it is not impossible to reach the top. Hopefully, as the new millenium arrives, more and more women will decide to take this road less traveled. If more and more women choose to take this path, then perhaps the time would come that the climb to the top will no longer be called the road less traveled. Instead, it shall be known as the highway women frequent.
Aileen-isms (Or so I prefer to think) 